The King of Killers

What animal holds the title of most poisonous? Is it the Black Mamba, or perhaps the Inland Taipan? What if the most poisonous creature of all time isn’t even an inhabitant of land, but an inhabitant of water? Could it be the Blue Ringed Octopus, or maybe the Box Jellyfish? To be honest, the title of most poisonous animal can go to any of the organisms mentioned above, as well as a great deal more. It simply depends on how you define most poisonous.
 
In a practical sense, the title of most poisonous animal would go to the organism that has the ability to kill the most people. Unfortunately, this is a very ambiguous way of deciding what is the most poisonous animal. 

The Black Widow, in a given year, will kill more people than the Poison Dart Frog. Subsequently, the Black Widow could be declared more poisonous, though in reality this is quite debatable, because the lethal toxins produced by the Poison Dart Frog are much stronger than those produced by the Black Widow. However, since the Black Widow is more aggressive than the Poison Dart Frog, coupled with the fact that it is more commonly found in densely populated areas, the Black Widow has the ability to kill more people. Thus, does the title of most poisonous go to the animal that kills more people in a given year with its lethal toxins, or does it go to the creature that has the most lethal toxin?

If one chooses to define the most poisonous animal as the organism that produces the most volatile toxin, then you face a similar problem as with the Black Widow and Poison Dart Frog.

The Marbled Cone Snail is one of the most deadly and poisonous creatures alive today. It comes from the genus Conus, and the family Conidae. The Marbled Cone Snail, and other members of the Conidae family, are predatory sea snails that produce neurotoxins in specialized venom glands. Whereas the Marbled Cone Snail is one of the most poisonous members of the Conidae family, the toxin it produces is identical to other sea snails in its family. In situations where multiple organisms produce the same toxin, how do you declare one organism to be more poisonous than another?  You could, if you change your definition of what a poisonous animal is, but that doesn’t mean you have a definitive answer.
 
It is the ambiguous nature of how one decides what is the most poisonous animal that results in no one organism being selected as supreme under all possible circumstance and definitions. However, for the sake of discussion, I will define the most poisonous animal as the organism that produces the deadliest toxin in proportion to its biomass. According to that definition, the title of most poisonous animal would belong to the creature that can deliver the strongest punch with the smallest body. 

Thus ladies and gentlemen, people of all ages, I present to you the world’s most poisonous animal alive. It is the one, the only, the mighty Irukandji Jellyfish!



The Irukandji Jellyfish is by far the most poisonous animal in existence today. It is a relative of the box jellyfish and a native of the coastal waters of Australia. It produces one of the most volatile neurotoxins in all of existence.

The most amazing thing about the Irukandji Jellyfish is its size. It is roughly one cubic centimeter in size and doesn’t get larger that that. To put that into perspective, it is about the size of your thumbnail. Its tentacles, however, are much longer; they can grow up to 1 meter in length.

There you have it. The Irukandji Jellyfish is quite possibly the most poisonous animal in terms of the proportional relationship between biomass and toxin lethality. Now, it may not kill the most people in a given year, or even be the most aggressive and likely to attack, but it is still one hell of a deadly creature. It truly does deserve the title of most poisonous.   

Why Blue?

What in the world makes blueberries blue? Well, this is a simple question with a complex answer. The chemical compound that is responsible for the unique hue of blueberries is known as Anthocyanin. Unfortunately there are a variety of other factors that are taken into consideration when determining the color of blueberries as well as other plants, flowers, and fruits. So in order to answer the proposed question with the greatest possible accuracy and scope, let us delve into the science of what makes blueberries blue.  
 
Let us begin our discussion with Anthocyanin. Anthocyanin is derived from a family of pigments known as Anthocyanidins. There are many notable differences between the pigment Anthocyanin and the family it comes from, but frankly it is way too complicated for me to explain, and in reality, it doesn’t help you understand why blueberries are blue. The important thing to understand is that Anthocyanidin and Anthocyanin are different things.

Anthocyanin is a water-soluble pigment that is prevalent in a variety of plant life. Its expressed color and hue can vary depending on soil pH, the species of plant that the pigment is being expressed in, as well as a variety of other factors. Generally speaking, the pigment Anthocyanin is expressed as blue, purple or dark red. It is prevalent in fruits such as blueberries, blood oranges, grapes, and blackberries, as well as vegetables such as eggplants and purple cauliflowers. It is also found in flowers such as pansies and snapdragons, as well as certain species of European Beech and Japanese Maples. It will essentially be found in varying concentration within all plants that are blue, purple, or dark red. Anthocyanin is a key component in determining the color of blueberries. However there are other factors that need to be taken into consideration, one of the most important being pH. 
 
The pH level of soil can drastically influence the color of blueberries. Blueberries are plants that grow well in relatively cool and cold climates with acidic soil.  The temperature of the given environment can influence the color of blueberries, but it is relatively marginal. Potential hydrogen concentrations on the other hand, have a greater impact on color. 

 
If the soil is mildly acidic, blueberries will be light blue in color. In any scenario, the definition of “mildly acidic” varies depending on the species of blueberries being grown, as well as the relative abundance of other nutrients, pigments, and the presence of moisture. However, for argument’s sake, let’s assume  “mildly acidic” is a pH between 5 and 6. Acidic soil will result in a darker blue hue. Once again, this varies due to other factors, but let us assume that acidic soil has a pH is between 4 and 5. At this pH, certain species of blueberries actually turn purple. If the pH drops to lower levels such as 3 or 3.5, the blueberries become very dark in color. They seem to be almost black or dark red at this point.

 
The pH levels also affect the uptake of other pigments; at very low pH concentrations such as 3, blueberries tend to absorb other pigments more readily that at higher pH concentration. This is why near black and dark red blueberries exist. 

 
Beyond pH, the species of blueberry being grown can alter the color of the fruit. There are certain species of Eastern European blueberry that predominantly produce purple fruits. There are also certain species of Japanese and Asian blueberries that produce a mix of blue and red berries at the same time. There could also be a biochemical reason as to why certain types of blueberry plants have the tendency to absorb less Anthocyanin and greater quantities of other pigments. Different species of blueberry plants have altered genes in terms of phenotypic expression of color; that would explain why blueberries come in a variety of colors.

 
Then again, there are a variety of miscellaneous factors that could affect color. One must take into consideration the levels of certain pigments, minerals, and nutrients within the soil a blueberry plant is being grown in. The health of a plant can also contribute to the production of fruit and its hue. There are certain environmental triggers, such as changes in seasonal rainfall patterns, or increased/decreased exposure to ambient sunlight, that can affect the color of the blueberry. However, getting into all the possible technicalities would just be pointless. 

 
So why are blueberries blue? If you were to ask someone with a PhD in botanical sciences, they could probably go off for four days explaining all the possible intricacies of blueberry fruit development. However. for the inquisitive reader, the answer is as simple as pigment, pH, and genetic predisposition.      

   

Do you like blueberries? Why or why not? Leave a comment.

Survival Through Sensitivity

The human body is a relatively sensitive thing. Slight alterations in environmental conditions can utterly change the biochemical processes that occur within a given person's body. For instance, when air temperature rapidly drops resulting in the cooling of the epidermis, the body responds by inducing muscle spasms to generate body heat. This experience is commonly known as shivering. 

Similar things happen when temperatures in a given environment rise. As the epidermis heats up, vasodilation occurs resulting in the increased flow of blood to the surface of the skin. This is why people become red in hotter temperatures; blood is being rushed to the surface of their skin. At this point sweat glands activate, and as perspiration accumulates on the surface of the epidermis, evaporation occurs, drawing out heat from the body - effectively cooling it. 

The human body is an amazing thing and its sensitivity has contributed to our survival as a species. Most people can agree that vomiting is an absolutely horrible experience, but it’s an integral component of regulating proper biological function. When toxins such as alcohol accumulate in the stomach at levels that the body can’t process, in order to prevent physiological shock, we vomit. Vomiting is an important self defense mechanism of sorts. 

 
Most people suffer from motion sickness at least once in their lives. The most common instance of this occurs when an individual attempts to read in a moving vehicle. This is something that very few people can do successfully. The most common physiological response in this situation is the induction of nausea. Many anthropologists and evolutionary biologists believe this is a defense mechanism that humans developed thousands of years ago.  

 
If human beings did evolve from an ancestral species, then it is logical to assume there was a time when primitive man exclusively survived on foraging. Since foraging creatures such as chimpanzees instinctively put newly discovered objects in their mouth, it is also logical to assume that primitive humans did the same thing. In fact, there is a great amount of supporting evidence available to give credence to the claim that primitive human beings stuffed anything and everything in their mouths. Babies and young children instinctively put foreign objects in their mouths in order to determine certain characteristics of said objects. However that is a topic for another time, let us not digress.

 

Where were we? Oh, yes. We were discussing primitive humans. For a moment, assume that one of our evolutionary ancestors consumed a toxic plant or hallucinogen. Depending on what kind of hallucinogen or toxic substance was consumed, a variety of physiological response could follow: blurred and distorted vision, heart palpitations, loss of sensation in various part of the body, loss of motor coordination, etc. The only way our ancestral friend can survive is if he expels the foreign substance that was consumed. The easiest way to do this is to vomit. 

Now back to motion sickness and reading in cars. There is a rising belief in the scientific community that motion sickness simulates the biological distortion experienced through the consumption of toxins and hallucinogens. For this reason the body instinctively induces nausea and vomiting. 

This makes sense when you think about it. When you read in a moving car, your eyes see a stationary object, thus convincing your brain that you are not moving, yet the presence of sounds commonly associated with motion indicates otherwise. The mixed signals sent for the visual and auditory cortex ultimately convinces the brain that something is wrong with the body. The brain panics and assumes that a harmful substance has been ingested; this is due to that lack of auditory and visual coordination. The brain subsequently sends electrical signals to the gastrointestinal tract ultimately instigating everyone’s least favorite sensation. This however is only a theory, and has not been indoctrinated as scientific fact. It does make the most sense though.   

The human body is an amazing manifestation of nature. Its complexity rivals only that of the universe. It is dynamic, adaptive, and in many ways, intelligent. The things our bodies do to keep us alive and functioning are difficult to understand, but nonetheless we should be grateful. If weren’t for our sensitivity to change as a species, we would have died out a long time ago.

What do you think is the most important defense mechanism our body has? Leave a comment below.

Dollars and Cents - The Penny

If you’re ever on the streets, look around, and you’ll be sure to find a penny on the ground. With the iconic bust of Abraham Lincoln gracing the front, and a multitude of designs featured on the back, the United States penny is a true traveler, held and used by all walks of life. But with steady increases in base metal prices, the penny now costs 1.8 cents to manufacture, and critics are calling on the US mint to follow the Canadian mint’s example and discontinue the penny.


Yet our mint continues hammering out millions of shiny pennies every year, despite the inherent loss in revenue. So why is it that the penny has remained so popular though it is all but obsolete? Part of it is government inefficiency; numerous bills have been introduced on the House floor looking to either change the metal composition or get rid of the penny altogether, but no significant action has ever been taken. Currently, the Mint is testing steel as a possible alternative. Interestingly enough, in 1943, steel pennies were minted, as copper was much needed for bullets during World War II, which doesn’t make them a new concept.


However, there is a much deeper significance to the penny. In many aspects, the penny is quite symbolic; the most obvious significance is the portraiture of Abraham Lincoln on the front. The Lincoln penny has been minted since 1909, the centenary of Lincoln’s birth, and was the first American coin to feature an actual person (all coins before featured effigies of Lady Liberty or other patriotic themes). Lincoln’s contribution to equality in America is well-known, but the acceptance of such a controversial figure in the South was tangible proof that the nation was moving forward.


But there is also the aspect of faith in the dollar. Inflation and various economic factors have led to reduced buying power of the dollar. Keeping the penny may not be very practical, but it certainly does keep morale up; admitting the penny is too worthless to make would result in a quasi-admittance that the US dollar is no longer as powerful as it used to be.


The penny may be shunned in today’s society as worthless, but think twice before you leave a penny on the streets. The penny represents fundamental tenets of America, such as freedom and democracy. But more importantly, it serves as a psychological cushion for the American dollar. It’s the scapegoat everyone throws away to feel better about themselves. The penny isn’t our hero. It’s our watchful protector, our silent guardian.

A dark knight.

What do you think about the penny? Leave a comment below.

Food for Thought

As living organisms, we all must consume a set amount of food on a regular basis in order to sustain life. Regardless of if you have an exclusively vegetarian diet or prefer to devour meat, we can all agree that food is an integral component of the economy, society, and culture. Food is a form of art for some and a medium of economic success for others. It varies from place to place and reflects the unique characteristics that a given society or culture have. It is something that all people can relate to and understand. So that begs the question. What are the three most consumed foods on the face of the earth?

The human body has the amazing ability to consume a variety of foods as well as assimilate a myriad of nutrients. We are able to digest complex proteins and lipids as well as integrate inorganic substances such as iron and zinc into our biochemistry. As a species we have a wide range of tolerance in regards to what eat; interestingly enough as wide as our pallets are, human beings prefer to consume carbohydrates above all else. Subsequently the three most widely consumed foods are wheat, rice, and potatoes.

How did wheat, rice, and potatoes become the three most consumed foods in the world? Well there is a simple answer to this question. Let us begin our discussion with wheat.

Wheat is a food source that is as old as civilization itself. When you look at the development of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, the Industry River Valley, or anywhere else in the world, with the exception of the Americas, wheat has established itself as a prominent source of food. There are multiple reasons for the prevalence of wheat as a food source for early civilizations. It grows just about anywhere and is easy to harvest; also yields from this specific crop can be high resulting in food surplus stimulating population growth. It can be stored for longer periods of time than other foods, as well as be manipulated into a variety of products. When you take into consideration the ease by which wheat can be produced, transported, stored, and manipulated, it is very apparent why wheat is the world's most consumed food.

Rice is widely consumed for similar reasons. In swampy and waterlogged areas rice is very prevalent. It was abundant in the areas where Easter civilization developed. When you look at South East Asia, Southern India, Southeast China, and other regions that fall under the realm of the seasonal monsoon rain, rice is the most practical crop to grow. It grows well in wetland areas and provides more calories per acre that any other crop; this makes it optimal for feeding large populations. It will not rot or decay quickly in humid environments unlike wheat. It can be easily stored and transported, as well as be manipulated to create a variety of products.

Potatoes are a commonly consumed food source for much the same reason that wheat and rice are. However, potatoes came about in a very interesting way. Potatoes are derived from the Solanaceae family. This is a particular family of roots and plants with flowering shoots. Roots from his family are more commonly referred to as nightshades or potatoes. (Not all roots from the Solanaceae family are actually potatoes.) A peculiar thing about nightshades is that most of them are highly toxic and poisonous. No one really knows how edible potatoes came into being. Scientists have proposed that natives of mountainous regions in South America cultivated nightshades for use in ritual ceremonies or sacrifices. As certain native groups migrated to various altitudes and thermoclines along mountain ranges nightshades were brought with them. Gradually the chemical and biological nature of nightshades changed until they became non toxic and edible. But then again, this is only speculation.

Regardless of how potatoes came into existence, they quickly spread as a food source in the Americas. Potatoes grew well in cold climates and high altitudes. They were a calorie rich food source and could be fermented or processed into a variety of other foods. Upon the discovery of the potato by European explorers, the potato became a standard staple in colder environments across the world; particularly in Ireland where potatoes were used to make bread substitutes, and in Russia where potatoes were used to make vodka.

There you have it! The three most consumed foods in the modern world: wheat, rice and potatoes. They all became staples for similar reasons. These foods have changed society as we know it and continue to do so. So next time you sit down and have a meal think about the history of your food. 

The Wise Confucius

Confucius was a wise man; however, what is the wisest thing Confucius has ever declared? Take a moment and think about this. What is the wisest statement that Confucius ever stated? 


This is a very debatable topic. Confucius commented on everything from government to willpower. His sayings have influenced a countless number of people, but unfortunately, there is no objective way to determine the validity of one quotation over another. Essentially there will be some form of preferential bias dictating the response that each and every person has to the question. For this reason, I will present my opinion as to what is the wisest statement uttered by Confucius. 


The wisest thing that Confucius ever declared was, “Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising everytime we fall.”

I primarily have two reasons for believing that this is Confucius’s wisest statement. 
Firstly, this quotation is so inspirational, it has found its way into a variety of literary works and mediums of entertainment. For example, in the movie “Batman Begins”, when Bruce Wayne is being taken out of a well by his father, Thomas Wayne declares, “And why do we fall? So we can pick ourselves back up .” This quotation by Bruce Wayne’s father is simply a paraphrased version of Confucius’s remark. The fact that Confucius is being referenced to in a movie like “Batman Begins” is a perfect example of the powerful association that people have with this particular statement. 


Secondly,  this statement is very thought provoking. In this particular quotation, Confucius is stating that a person should never give up, no matter the challenge faced or obstacle encountered; it is better to keep on trying than merely surrendering to failure. When I think about this quote, I attempt to postulate what the world would be like if certain historical figures gave up on their endeavors once they encountered an instance of failure or hardship. 
Imagine if someone like Alexander the Great gave up on his military campaign after losing a single battle; the Persian Empire could have taken over the world. Imagine if Charles Darwin didn’t publish his book, The Origin of the Species, due to the opposition he faced from the religious community; the world of modern science and medicine potentially would not exist. And if Galileo Galilei simply conceded to the Catholic Church and declared his observations to be false and fictitious, modern astronomy potentially wouldn’t have developed, but more importantly, resulting in the prevention of the Apollo moon landing and other significant feat of human ingenuity.

Confucius’s statement of “Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.” has allowed mankind to appreciate the efforts and contributions made by people in the past. The statement is timeless in nature and is truly meaningful. After all, if it is still being referred to over 2,000 years after its conception, there has to be some validity to it. Out of all the sayings that Confucius ever came up with, this particular one is the wisest of them all.